Builder's Guide To Desktop Computer Components

When building a computer nothing is more frustrating than finding out the case is too small for the motherboard, the motherboard socket and processor socket are different, the memory notch is in the wrong position, the power supply is missing connectors, and, of course, the video cable does not connect to the GPU. Selecting compatible computer components is one of the challenging aspects of building your own computer. This Web page is a comprehensive review of desktop computer components, including component descriptions, specifications, connections, and compatibility.

• A.k.a., motherboard chipset.
• A defined set of capabilities upon which a motherboard is built. A motherboard baseline specification. Specifically, a chipset defines: 1.) the processor, memory, expansion cards, data storage devices, and peripheral devices that are compatible with a motherboard; and 2.) the additional devices (e.g., audio and ethernet) and technologies (e.g., RAID and power management) that are integrated into a motherboard. In other words, a chipset defines a motherboard's capabilities, which, in turn, defines a computer's capabilities.
• Traditionally consists of two principle, interconnected chips: 1.) the northbridge chip, which sits between and interfaces with the processor, memory, and GPU over high bandwidth buses; and 2.) the southbridge chip, which sits between and interfaces with the computer's additional devices (e.g., internal data storage, USB, optical drives, integrated audio, integrated ethernet, keyboard, mouse, etc.) over lower bandwidth buses.
• Some of the technologies traditionally integrated into the motherboard northbridge chip (e.g., memory controller and integrated GPU) are now being integrated into the processor.
• Desktop chipset types: 1.) AMD desktop chipsets, which support AMD desktop processors; and 2.) Intel desktop chipsets, which support Intel desktop processors.
• Based on chipset/processor, desktop computers are divided into two types (a.k.a., platforms): 1.) AMD desktop computers, which have an AMD desktop chipset/processor; and 2.) Intel desktop computers, which have an Intel desktop chipset/processor.
• When building a desktop computer you must decide to build either an AMD desktop computer or an Intel desktop computer.
• Current AMD desktop chipset manufacturers: AMD (amd.com) and NVIDIA (nvidia.com), with NVIDIA barely hanging on. Past AMD desktop chipset manufacturers included ATI, SiS, and VIA. After AMD acquired ATI in 2006, third parties have little business in the desktop chipset market.
• Latest AMD desktop chipset series by AMD: AMD 8-Series Chipset (amd.com), AMD 9-Series Chipset (amd.com), and AMD A-Series APU Chipset.
• Current Intel desktop chipset manufacturer: Intel (intel.com), which has a virtual monopoly on the Intel desktop chipset market. Past Intel desktop chipset manufacturers included ATI, NVIDIA, SiS, and VIA.
• Latest Intel desktop chipset series by Intel: Intel 5 Series Chipset (Desktop), Intel X58 Series Chipset, Intel 6 Series Chipset (Desktop), Intel 7 Series Chipset (Desktop), Intel X79 Express Chipset, Intel 8 Series Chipset (Desktop), and Intel 9 Series Chipset (Desktop). Intel 5 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports Previous Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1156 socket (Clarkdale and Lynnfield). Intel X58 Express Chipset supports Previous Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1366 socket (Bloomfield and Gulftown). Intel 6 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 2nd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Sandy Bridge) and, with an updated motherboard BIOS, 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Ivy Bridge). Intel 7 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 2nd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Sandy Bridge) and 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Ivy Bridge). Intel X79 Express Chipset supports 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 2011 socket (Sandy Bridge E) and, with an updated motherboard BIOS, 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 2011 socket (Ivy Bridge E). Intel 8 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Haswell and Devil's Canyon, not Crystal Well), not 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Broadwell) (no motherboard BIOS update released). Intel 9 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Haswell and Devil's Canyon, not Crystal Well) and 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Broadwell). Intel X99 Chipset supports 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 2011-v3 socket (Haswell E). Intel 100 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 6th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1151 socket (Skylake).
• The most important computer component to choose wisely. First choose the chipset that meets your present/future needs, then choose the motherboard manufacturer.

2.1.  Latest AMD Desktop Chipsets By AMD

2.2.  Latest Intel Desktop Chipsets By Intel

2.2.1.  Intel 5 Series Chipset (Desktop)

Intel 5 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports Previous Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1156 socket (Clarkdale and Lynnfield).

2.2.2.  Intel 6 Series Chipset (Desktop)

Intel 6 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 2nd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Sandy Bridge) and, with an updated motherboard BIOS, 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Ivy Bridge).

2.2.3.  Intel 7 Series Chipset (Desktop)

Intel 7 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 2nd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Sandy Bridge) and 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1155 socket (Ivy Bridge).

2.2.4.  Intel 8 Series Chipset (Desktop)

Intel 8 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Haswell and Devil's Canyon, not Crystal Well), not 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Broadwell) (no motherboard BIOS update released).

2.2.5.  Intel 9 Series Chipset (Desktop)

Intel 9 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Haswell and Devil's Canyon, not Crystal Well) and 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1150 socket (Broadwell).

2.2.6.  Intel 100 Series Chipset (Desktop)

Intel 100 Series Chipset (Desktop) supports 6th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1151 socket (Skylake).

2.2.7.  Intel Chipsets For Intel High End Desktop Processors

Intel X58 Express Chipset supports Previous Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 1366 socket (Bloomfield and Gulftown). Intel X79 Express Chipset supports 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 2011 socket (Sandy Bridge E) and, with an updated motherboard BIOS, 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 2011 socket (Ivy Bridge E). Intel X99 Chipset supports 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) for 2011-v3 socket (Haswell E).

• A.k.a., system board, main board, mobo.
• The main circuit board inside a computer. An implementation of a chipset.
• Motherboard manufacturers currently incorporating AMD desktop chipsets into their motherboards include ASRock (asrock.com), ASUS (asus.com), BIOSTAR (biostar.com.tw), ECS (ecs.com.tw), Foxconn (foxconn.com), GIGABYTE (gigabyte.com), and MSI (msi.com).
• Motherboard manufacturers currently incorporating Intel desktop chipsets into their motherboards include ASRock (asrock.com), ASUS (asus.com), BIOSTAR (biostar.com.tw), ECS (ecs.com.tw), EVGA (evga.com), Foxconn (foxconn.com), GIGABYTE (gigabyte.com), Intel (intel.com), and MSI (msi.com).
• Form factor: The dimensions, subcomponents, and subcomponent positioning as constitute a general design/form.
• Motherboard form factor includes, but is not limited to, motherboard size and motherboard/case mount points.
• Common motherboard form factors: 1.) microATX (μATX), which is 244mm x 244; and 2.) ATX (standard ATX), which is 305mm x 244.
• The difference in microATX and ATX size is primarily due to the number of expansion slots.
• Expansion slot: The connection between expansion (a.k.a., add-in) card and motherboard to install the add-in card.
• microATX form factor supports up to 4 expansion slots. ATX form factor supports up to 7 expansion slots.
• Motherboard/case mount points: The connections between motherboard and case to install the motherboard.
• Case must support motherboard form factor.
• General price/features: microATX < ATX.
• Main power connector: The primary connection between power supply and motherboard to power the computer.
• Latest main power connector type: 24 pin main power connector. Main power connector types oldest to newest: 20 pin main power connector (2000) | 24 pin main power connector (2003).
• Power supply must provide correct main power connector.
• Socket: The connection between motherboard and processor to install the processor.
• Latest AMD socket types: AM3, AM3+, and FM1.
• Latest Intel socket types: BGA1364, LGA1150, LGA1155, LGA1156, LGA1366, LGA2011, and LGA2011-v3.
• Motherboard and processor socket must be the same or compatible.
• CPU power connector: The connection between power supply and motherboard to power the processor.
• CPU power connector types: 1.) 4 pin ATX 12V CPU power connector, and 2.) 8 pin EPS 12V CPU power connector (a.k.a., 8 pin ATX 12V CPU power connector).
• Power supply must provide correct CPU power connector(s).
• Back USB and audio: The USB ports and audio connectors located on the back of the computer for connecting USB and audio devices. Back USB and audio provided by motherboard back (I/O) panel.
• Motherboard must support back USB and audio.
• Front USB and audio: The USB ports and audio connectors located on the front of the computer for connecting USB and audio devices. Front USB provided by connection between motherboard (internal) USB header and case I/O panel. Front audio provided by connection between motherboard (internal) audio header and case I/O panel.
• Case and motherboard must support front USB and audio.
• LEDs and switches: The connections between case and motherboard to provide indicator lights and power On/Off and Reset switches.
• Black wires and white wires are negative. All other wire colors are positive. Polarity (i.e., negative/positive) does not matter for switches, including power On/Off and Reset switches.
• Look for motherboard/processor bundle to reduce cost.
• It is strongly recommended that you read the entire motherboard manual, read all motherboard BIOS release notes, and answer any questions before purchasing a motherboard.

• A.k.a., central processing unit (CPU), processor.
• Performs the computations/logic/instructions that enable computer functionality.
• Desktop processor manufacturers include AMD (amd.com) and Intel (intel.com).
• Latest AMD desktop processors: AMD Sempron Processor (amd.com), AMD Phenom II Processors (amd.com), AMD Athlon II Processors (amd.com), AMD FX Processors (amd.com), and AMD A-Series Processor (amd.com).
• Latest Intel desktop processors: Intel Celeron Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), Intel Pentium Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), Previous Generation Intel Core i3 Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), Previous Generation Intel Core i5 Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), Previous Generation Intel Core i7 Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), Previous Generation Intel Core i7 Extreme Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 2nd Generation Intel Core i3 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 2nd Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 2nd Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 3rd Generation Intel Core i3 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 3rd Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 3rd Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 4th Generation Intel Core i3 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 4th Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 4th Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 5th Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), 5th Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com), and Intel High End Desktop Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com).
• Socket: The connection between motherboard and processor to install the processor.
• Latest AMD socket types: AM3, AM3+, and FM1.
• Latest Intel socket types: BGA1364, LGA1150, LGA1151, LGA1155, LGA1156, LGA1366, LGA2011, and LGA2011-v3.
• Motherboard and processor socket must be the same or compatible.
• CPU power connector: The connection between power supply and motherboard to power the processor.
• CPU power connector types: 1.) 4 pin ATX 12V CPU power connector, and 2.) 8 pin EPS 12V CPU power connector (a.k.a., 8 pin ATX 12V CPU power connector).
• Power supply must provide correct CPU power connector(s).
• Boxed processor is a processor bundled with factory heat sink/fan.
• Unless overclocking, no fancy processor cooling system required. Get boxed processor and use factory heat sink/fan.
• Look for motherboard/processor bundle to reduce cost.
• Some of the technologies traditionally integrated into the motherboard northbridge chip (e.g., memory controller and integrated GPU) are now being integrated into the processor.

4.1.  Latest AMD Desktop Processors And Technologies

4.2.  Latest Intel Desktop Processors And Technologies

4.2.1.  Previous Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop)

4.2.2.  2nd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop)

4.2.3.  3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop)

4.2.4.  4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop)

4.2.5.  5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop)

4.2.6.  6th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop)

4.2.7.  High End Intel Desktop Processors

• A.k.a., random access memory (RAM), system memory, main memory, memory.
• Volatile, short-term, fast access data storage for instructions and data needed by the processor.
• Abbreviations: DDR = Double Data Rate. DDR = DDR1 = DDR 1st generation. DDR2 = DDR 2nd generation. DDR3 = DDR 3rd generation. DDR4 = DDR 4th generation. DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DR4 = DDR and/or DDR2 and/or DDR3 and/or DDR4. SDRAM = Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. DIMM = Dual In Line Memory Module. Hz = frequency = cycles/second = c/s. T = transfers.
• Memory manufacturers include Corsair (corsair.com), Crucial (crucial.com), G.Skill (gskill.com), Kingston (kingston.com), Micron (micron.com), OCZ (ocztechnology.com), Patriot (patriotmemory.com), and PNY (www3.pny.com).
• DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM replaces PC66/100/133 SDRAM.
• DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM and PC66/100/133 SDRAM are not compatible.
• Latest memory type: DDR4 SDRAM. Memory types oldest to newest: DDR SDRAM (2002) | DDR2 SDRAM (2004) | DDR3 SDRAM (2007) | DDR4 SDRAM (2014).
• DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM are not compatible.
• DDR SDRAM is 184 pin DIMM, 2.5V, and effective frequency 200/266/333/400MHz. DDR2 SDRAM is 240 pin DIMM, 1.8V, and effective frequency 400/533/666/800MHz. DDR3 SDRAM is 240 pin DIMM, 1.5V, and effective frequency 800/1066/1333/1600/1866/2133MHz. DDR4 SDRAM is 288 pin DIMM, 1.2V, and effective frequency 1600/1866/2133/2400/2666/3200MHz. DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM have different notch position.
• DDR3L SDRAM is low voltage (actually dual voltage) DDR3 SDRAM. DDR3L SDRAM is 240 pin DIMM, 1.35V and 1.5V, and effective frequency 800/1066/1333/1600/1866MHz. DDR3/DDR3L SDRAM have identical notch position. DDR3L SDRAM automatically operates at 1.35V or 1.5V depending upon the system. DDR3L SDRAM automatically operates @ 1.35V if all installed memory sticks are DDR3L SDRAM and the processor supports DDR3L SDRAM @ 1.35V; otherwise, the DDR3L SDRAM automatically operates @ 1.5V. In other words, when DDR3L SDRAM is mixed with DDR3 SDRAM and/or the processor does not support DDR3L SDRAM @ 1.35V, the DDR3L SDRAM automatically operates @ 1.5V, not @ 1.35V. 6th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) support DDR4 SDRAM and DDR3L SDRAM @ 1.35V. To use a 6th Generation Intel Core Processor (Desktop) with DDR4 SDRAM, get an Intel 100 Series Chipset (Desktop) motherboard with DDR4 SDRAM slots. To use a 6th Generation Intel Core Processor (Desktop) with DDR3L SDRAM, get an Intel 100 Series Chipset (Desktop) motherboard with DDR3 SDRAM slots.
• PC66/100/133 SDRAM transfer data once per memory I/O pin clock cycle, which is 1transfer/cycle = 1T/c.
• DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM transfer data twice per memory I/O pin clock cycle, which is 2transfers/cycle = 2T/c.
• When DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM frequency is discussed the reference is almost always to effective frequency, not memory I/O pin frequency. Effective frequency is the memory I/O pin frequency that would be required to achieve a given transfers/second at 1cycle/transfer, which is T/s x 1c/T. Therefore, for DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM, since data is transferred twice per memory I/O pin cycle, the effective frequency (a.k.a., data frequency) is twice the memory I/O pin frequency.
• The number of bits that can be transferred over a channel/lane/bus at one time is known as width. The memory bus width is 64-bit. In other words, data is transferred between memory and processor over the memory bus at 64 bits per transfer, which is 64bit/transfer = 64b/T = 8B/T.
• The peak bandwidth for a single channel of memory is memory I/O pin frequency (cycles/second) x 2transfers/cycle x 8Bytes/transfer. Therefore, for example, since DDR3-1600 has I/O pin frequency 800MHz, the peak bandwidth for a single channel of DDR3-1600 is 800Mc/s x 2T/c x 8B/T = 12800MB/s = 12.8GB/s.
• To increase the bandwidth between memory and processor, dual, tri, and quad channel memory configurations have been developed. Dual channel is two 64-bit channels between memory and processor. Therefore, for example, DDR3-1600 in dual channel mode has peak bandwidth 800Mc/s x 2T/c x 8B/T x 2 channels = 25600MB/s = 25.6GB/s. Tri channel is three 64-bit channels between memory and processor. Therefore, for example, DDR3-1600 in tri channel mode has peak bandwidth 800Mc/s x 2T/c x 8B/T x 3 channels = 38400MB/s = 38.4GB/s. Quad channel is four 64-bit channels between memory and processor. Therefore, for example, DDR3-1600 in quad channel mode has peak bandwidth 800Mc/s x 2T/c x 8B/T x 4 channels = 51200MB/s = 51.2GB/s.
• Motherboards that support dual channel mode also support single channel mode. Motherboards that support tri channel mode also support dual and single channel mode. Motherboards that support quad channel mode also support dual and single channel mode and sometimes tri channel mode.
• Dual, tri, and quad channel mode require proper combinations of qualifying memory. If proper combinations of qualifying memory are not installed, the memory subsystem automatically defaults to a lower channel mode.
• To facilitate establishing dual, tri, and quad channel mode, memory manufacturers sell packages of 2 identical memory sticks (a.k.a., kit of 2 x) for dual channel mode, packages of 3 identical memory sticks (a.k.a., kit of 3 x) for tri channel mode, and packages of 4 identical memory sticks (a.k.a., kit of 4 x) for quad channel mode.
• Get memory kit 2 x for dual channel mode. Get memory kit 3 x for tri channel mode. Get memory kit 4 x for quad channel mode.
• Unless overclocking, no fancy memory cooling system required.
• DDR does not mean/imply single channel mode, or vice versa. DDR2 does not mean/imply double channel mode, or vice versa. DDR3 does not mean/imply tri channel mode, or vice versa. DDR4 does not mean/imply quad channel mode, or vice versa.
• Motherboard must support memory type (i.e., DDR SDRAM, DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, or DDR4 SDRAM), memory capacity (i.e., size in Bytes) and memory speed (i.e., frequency in Hz).
• Get memory that passed motherboard testing.
• The peak bandwidth of the memory controller/bus cannot be exceeded. Moreover, memory installations whose peak bandwidth can exceed the peak bandwidth of the memory controller/bus are automatically adjusted by the memory subsystem to match the peak bandwidth of the memory controller/bus. In other words, memory installations whose peak bandwidth can exceed the peak bandwidth of the memory controller/bus do not increase memory subsystem performance or overall system performance. Therefore, for maximum performance, the peak bandwidth of the memory installation need only match, not exceed, the peak bandwidth of the memory controller/bus. Purchasing excessive memory bandwidth does not hinder performance, but, depending upon memory prices, can be a waste of money.
• 32-bit versions of Windows support a maximum of 3.2GB memory, which is accomplished by installing 4GB memory. For greater than 3.2GB memory, install a 64-bit version of Windows.

5.1.  PC66 Through PC133 SDRAM Memory Specifications

5.2.  DDR SDRAM Memory Specifications

5.3.  DDR2 SDRAM Memory Specifications

5.4.  DDR3 SDRAM Memory Specifications

5.5.  DDR4 SDRAM Memory Specifications

• A.k.a., peripheral component interconnect express, PCI Express. PCIE, PCI-E, PCI-e.
• A serial, scalable, high bandwidth expansion card/expansion slot interface and bus interconnect type well suited for add-in GPUs.
• PCIe specifications are created by PCI-SIG, which requires an annual membership fee of $3000 US annual to view the specifications.
• Abbreviations: PCIe Gen1 = PCIe 1st generation = PCIe 1.x = PCIe version 1.0, 1.0a, and 1.1. PCIe Gen2 = PCIe 2nd generation = PCIe 2.x = PCIe version 2.0 and 2.1. PCIe Gen3 = PCIe 3rd generation = PCIe version 3.0. PCIe = PCIe Gen1 and/or PCIe Gen2 and/or PCIe Gen3.
• PCIe replaces PCI and AGP.
• PCIe, PCI, and AGP are not compatible.
• Latest PCIe version: PCIe 3.0. PCIe versions oldest to newest: PCIe 1.0 (2002) | PCIe 1.0a (2003) | PCIe 1.1 (2005) | PCIe 2.0 (2007) | PCIe 2.1 (2009) | PCIe 3.0 (2010).
• PCIe 1.1, 2.x, and 3.0 are compatible. In other words, for example, PCIe 1.1 and 2.x cards can be installed in PCIe 3.0 slots, and PCIe 3.0 cards can be installed in PCIe 1.1 and 2.x slots. Performance, however, is limited to the performance of the slowest device, be it PCIe card or PCIe slot. Therefore, depending upon the usage, the installation might or might not be satisfactory.
• If the specification for a PCIe card/slot does not reference PCIe version, then it is most likely PCIe Gen1.
• Data is transferred between PCIe card and PCIe slot/bus over lanes. The number of lanes allowed scales as 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32. The number of lanes present is known as x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, or x32.
• A PCIe lane is four PCIe card I/O pins. In each PCIe lane, one pair of I/O pins sends data, the other pair of I/O pins receives data, and data can be transferred in both directions simultaneously. In other words, PCIe data transmission is full duplex at the lane level.
• PCIe card/slot connector length is directly proportional to the number of lanes present. Therefore, PCIe card/slot connector length: x1 < x2 < x4 < x8 < x12 < x16 < x32.
• Due to length/cost, PCIe x32 cards/slots are rarely used in personal computers. Therefore, further discussion of PCIe x32 cards/slots is beyond the scope of this page.
• PCIe transfers data once per PCIe card I/O pin clock cycle, which is 1transfer/cycle = 1T/c.
• The number of bits that can be transferred over a channel/lane/bus at one time is known as width. PCIe data transfer is serial, which means the PCIe lane width is 1-bit. In other words, data is transferred between PCIe card and PCIe slot/bus at 1 bit per transfer per lane per direction, which is 1bit/transfer per lane per direction = 1b/T per lane per direction.
• PCIe encoding: PCIe Gen1 and Gen2 data is transferred using the 8b/10b encoding scheme. As a result, each 10 bits of (raw) data transferred contains 8 bits of (usable) original data. In other words, PCIe Gen1 and Gen2 data transfer has 20% overhead ((10-8)/10 x 100 = 20%). PCIe Gen3 data is transferred using the 128b/130b encoding scheme. As a result, each 130 bits of (raw) data transferred contains 128 bits of (usable) original data. In other words, PCIe Gen3 data transfer has 1.5% overhead ((130-128)/130 x 100 = 1.5%).
• PCIe Gen1 I/O pin frequency is 2.5GHz, which is 2.5Gcyles/second = 2.5Gc/s.
• PCIe Gen2 I/O pin frequency is 5.0GHz, which is 5.0Gcyles/second = 5.0Gc/s.
• PCIe Gen3 I/O pin frequency is 8.0GHz, which is 8.0Gcyles/second = 8.0Gc/s.
• PCIe Gen1 I/O pin transfers per second is 2.5Gc/s x 1T/c = 2.5GT/s.
• PCIe Gen2 I/O pin transfers per second is 5.0Gc/s x 1T/c = 5.0GT/s.
• PCIe Gen3 I/O pin transfers per second is 8.0Gc/s x 1T/c = 8.0GT/s.
• PCIe Gen1 bandwidth per lane per direction (raw) is 2.5Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T = 2.5Gb/s.
• PCIe Gen2 bandwidth per lane per direction (raw) is 5.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T = 5.0Gb/s.
• PCIe Gen3 bandwidth per lane per direction (raw) is 8.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T = 8.0Gb/s.
• PCIe Gen1 bandwidth per lane per direction (usable) is 2.5Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) = 2.0Gb/s.
• PCIe Gen2 bandwidth per lane per direction (usable) is 5.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) = 4.0Gb/s.
• PCIe Gen3 bandwidth per lane per direction (usable) is 8.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 128b(usable)/130b(raw) = 7.9Gb/s.
• PCIe Gen1 bandwidth per lane per direction (usable) in Bytes/s is 2.5Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) x 1B/8b = 250MB/s.
• PCIe Gen2 bandwidth per lane per direction (usable) in Bytes/s is 5.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) x 1B/8b = 500MB/s.
• PCIe Gen3 bandwidth per lane per direction (usable) in Bytes/s is 8.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 128b(usable)/130b(raw) x 1B/8b = 985MB/s.
• PCIe Gen1 x16 bandwidth bidirectional (usable) in Bytes/s is 2.5Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 16 lanes x 2 directions x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) x 1B/8b = 8.0GB/s.
• PCIe Gen2 x16 bandwidth bidirectional (usable) in Bytes/s is 5.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 16 lanes x 2 directions x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) x 1B/8b = 16.0GB/s.
• PCIe Gen3 x16 bandwidth bidirectional (usable) in Bytes/s is 8.0Gc/s x 1T/c x 1b/T x 16 lanes x 2 directions x 128b(usable)/130b(raw) x 1B/8b = 31.5GB/s.
• PCIe Gen3 delivers twice the bandwidth per lane compared to PCIe Gen2, and PCIe Gen2 delivers twice the bandwidth per lane compared to PCIe Gen1. Therefore, for example, PCIe Gen3 x16 cards in PCIe Gen3 x16 slots deliver twice the bandwidth of PCIe Gen2 x16 cards in PCIe Gen2 x16 slots, and PCIe Gen2 x16 cards in PCIe Gen2 x16 slots deliver twice the bandwidth of PCIe Gen1 x16 cards in PCIe Gen1 x16 slots.
• Since PCIe 2.0 and 2.1 are identical and compatible in terms of bandwidth, the only reason to get a PCIe 2.1 card instead of a PCIe 2.0 card is for non-bandwidth related PCIe 3.0 compatibility.
• To reduce cost, PCIe cards are manufactured with only the number of lanes needed to support the device bandwidth requirement. For example, a basic gigabit network adapter (a.k.a., network interface card) need only be x1.
• PCIe cards can be installed in PCIe slots having an equal or greater number of lanes. For example, a PCIe x1 card can be installed in a PCIe x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, or x16 slot.
• Ideally, since PCIe cards can be installed in PCIe slots having an equal or a greater number of lanes, all PCIe slots would be x16. To reduce cost, motherboards are manufactured with PCIe x1, x2, x4, x8, and x12 slots, rather than all x16 slots.
• To reduce cost, some PCIe slots have more lanes physically than electrically. For example, a common PCIe slot is physically x16, but electrically x4, which is known as x16 (x4 mode). A PCIe x16 (x4 mode) slot accepts PCIe cards up to x16 in length, but only the first four lanes are functional. In other words, PCIe x8, x12, and x16 cards can be installed in a PCIe x16 (x4 mode) slot, but the bandwidth is limited to four lanes. Therefore, depending upon the usage, the installation might or might not be satisfactory. Although PCIe slots with more lanes physically than electrically might seem odd, they provide functionality and flexibility that would be lost if the slot was the same length physically as electrically.
• PCIe slots provide up to 75W to PCIe cards. Therefore, PCIe cards that use less than 75W might have a power supply minimum wattage requirement, and PCIe cards that use more than 75W always have a power supply minimum wattage requirement and one or more PCIe power connectors.
• PCIe power connector: The connection between power supply and PCIe card to provide additional power to the PCIe card.
• PCIe power connector types: 1.) 6 pin PCIe power connector, and 2.) 8 pin PCIe power connector.
• If installing PCIe cards, power supply must provided PCIe card power supply requirements, if any, including power supply minimum wattage and correct PCIe power connector(s).
• Some PCIe cards are very long and cannot be installed in smaller cases. In addition, although PCIe cards install in a single PCIe slot, some PCIe cards are very wide (a.k.a., double slot) and can obstruct adjacent motherboard expansion slots and/or have connectors that occupy two adjacent case expansion slots.
• Case must support PCIe card length. In addition, adjacent motherboard and case expansions slots must support PCIe card width.

• A.k.a., graphics processing unit.
• Performs the graphics computations/logic/instructions. Output is displayed on the monitor.
• GPU types: integrated GPUs and add-in GPUs.

7.1.  Integrated GPU

• A.k.a., iGPU, integrated graphics processor (IGP), integrated graphics, built-in graphics, on-board graphics, on-chip graphics.
• A GPU built into (i.e. integrated into) another computer component. The older integrated GPUs are built into the older motherboard chipsets. However, not all of the older motherboard chipsets include an integrated GPU. The latest integrated GPUs are built into the latest processors, not the motherboard chipsets. However, not all of the latest processors include an integrated GPU.
• Integrated GPU manufacturers include AMD (amd.com), NVIDIA (nvidia.com), and Intel (intel.com).
• Latest AMD integrated GPUs: AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics. AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics is built into the latest AMD processors, not the AMD motherboard chipsets. However, not all of the latest AMD processors include AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics. The AMD A-Series Processor (a.k.a., A-Series Accelerated Processing Unit, or A-Series APU) includes AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics. The AMD Sempron, Phenom II, Athlon II, and FX Processors do not include AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics. Motherboard support for AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics is simply providing video out connectors and an interface to the APU's integrated GPU. The AMD A55 and A75 Chipsets support AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics. The AMD 870, 880G, 890GX, 890FX, 970, 990X, and 990FX Chipsets do not support AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics. AMD Radeon HD 6000D Series Graphics supports Vista/7 Aero theme and is more than sufficient for typical home/office users. If better graphics performance is needed, install add-in GPU.
• Latest Intel integrated GPUs: 1.) Intel HD Graphics, Intel HD Graphics 2000, Intel HD Graphics 2500, Intel HD Graphics 3000, and Intel HD Graphics 4000, Intel HD Graphics 4400, and Intel HD Graphics 4600, collectively known as Intel HD Graphics; and 2.) Intel Iris Pro Graphics 5200 and Intel Iris Pro Graphics 6200, collectively known as Intel Iris Pro Graphics. Intel HD Graphics and Intel Iris Pro Graphics are built into the latest Intel processors, not the Intel motherboard chipsets. Accordingly, Intel HD Graphics and Intel Iris Pro Graphics are collectively known as Intel Processor Graphics. Although Intel Processor Graphics are built into the latest Intel processors, not all of the latest Intel processors include Intel Processor Graphics. As of April 19, 2016: 1.) Previous Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Clarkdale include Intel HD Graphics; 2.) Previous Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Lynnfield, Bloomfield, and Gulftown do not include Intel Processor Graphics; 3.) 2nd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Sandy Bridge include Intel HD Graphics except for the Core i5-2380P, Core i5-2450P, and Core i5-2550K; 4.) 2nd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Sandy Bridge E do not include Intel Processor Graphics; 5.) 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Ivy Bridge include Intel HD Graphics except for the Core i5-3350P; 6.) 3rd Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Ivy Bridge E do not include Intel Processor Graphics; 7.) 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Haswell and Devil's Canyon include Intel HD Graphics; 8.) 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Crystal Well include Intel Iris Pro Graphics 5200; 9.) 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Haswell E do not include Intel Processor Graphics; 10.) 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Broadwell include Intel Iris Pro Graphics; and 11.) 5th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Broadwell E do not include Intel Processor Graphics. Motherboard support for Intel Processor Graphics is simply providing video out connectors and an interface to the processor's integrated GPU. The following Intel chipsets support Intel Processor Graphics: Q57 Express, H55 Express, H57 Express, B65 Express, Q65 Express, Q67 Express, H61 Express, H67 Express, Z68 Express, B75 Express, Q75 Express, Q77 Express, H77 Express, Z75 Express, Z77 Express, B85, Q85, Q87, H81, H87, Z87, H97, and Z97. As listed above, the version of Intel Processor Graphics is determined by the processor. The following Intel chipsets do not support Intel Processor Graphics: P55 Express, X58 Express, P67 Express, and X79 Express. Intel Processor Graphics support Windows Vista/7 Aero theme and are more than sufficient for typical home/office users. For better graphics, install an add-in GPU.
• Video cable: The connection between monitor video connector and integrated GPU video connector to transfer the display signal.
• Latest video connector type: DisplayPort. Video connector types oldest to newest: VGA | DVI | HDMI | DisplayPort.
• Video cable must provide correct monitor video connector and correct integrated GPU video connector.

7.2.  Add-in GPU

• A.k.a., add-in graphics, graphics card, graphics adapter, video card, video adapter, discrete graphics, PCIe graphics (PEG).
• An expansion (a.k.a., add-in) card with GPU and video connector(s) installed in a motherboard expansion slot. An implementation of an add-in GPU chipset.
• Abbreviations: PCIe Gen1 = PCIe 1st generation = PCIe 1.x = PCIe version 1.0, 1.0a, and 1.1. PCIe Gen2 = PCIe 2nd generation = PCIe 2.x = PCIe version 2.0 and 2.1. PCIe Gen3 = PCIe 3rd generation = PCIe version 3.0. PCIe = PCIe Gen1 and/or PCIe Gen2 and/or PCIe Gen3.
• Current add-in GPU chipset manufacturers include AMD (amd.com), which acquired ATI in 2006, and NVIDIA (nvidia.com).
• Add-in GPU manufacturers currently incorporating AMD add-in GPU chipsets into their add-in GPUs include ASUS (asus.com), Diamond (diamondmm.com), HIS (hisdigital.com), MSI (msi.com), Sapphire (sapphiretech.com), VisionTek (visiontek.com), and XFX (xfxforce.com).
• Add-in GPU manufacturers currently incorporating NVIDIA add-in GPU chipsets into their add-in GPUs include ASUS (asus.com), EVGA (evga.com), GALAXY (galaxytech.com), MSI (msi.com), NVIDIA (nvidia.com), PNY (pny.com), and ZOTAC (zotac.com).
• Latest add-in GPU type: PCIe. PCIe versions oldest to newest: PCIe 1.0 (2002) | PCIe 1.0a (2003) | PCIe 1.1 (2005) | PCIe 2.0 (2007) | PCIe 2.1 (2009) | PCIe 3.0 (2010).
• PCIe 1.1, 2.x, and 3.0 are compatible. In other words, for example, PCIe 1.1 and 2.x add-in GPUs can be installed in PCIe 3.0 slots, and PCIe 3.0 add-in GPUs can be installed in PCIe 1.1 and 2.x slots. Performance, however, is limited to the performance of the slowest device, be it PCIe add-in GPU or PCIe slot. Therefore, depending upon the usage, the installation might or might not be satisfactory. Installations in which the PCIe add-in GPU, not the PCIe slot, is of the lower generation introduce a bottleneck into the system and, therefore, might be more problematic.
• If the specification for a PCIe add-in GPU/slot does not mention PCIe version, then it is most likely PCIe Gen1.
• Data is transferred between PCIe card and PCIe slot/bus over lanes. The number of lanes allowed scales as 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32. The number of lanes present is known as x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, or x32.
• All PCIe add-in GPUs (Gen1, Gen2, and Gen3) are x16.
• PCIe Gen3 delivers twice the bandwidth per lane compared to PCIe Gen2, and PCIe Gen2 delivers twice the bandwidth per lane compared to PCIe Gen1. Therefore, for example, PCIe Gen3 x16 add-in GPUs in PCIe Gen3 x16 slots deliver twice the bandwidth of PCIe Gen2 x16 add-in GPUs in PCIe Gen2 x16 slots, and PCIe Gen2 x16 add-in GPUs in PCIe Gen2 x16 slots deliver twice the bandwidth of PCIe Gen1 x16 add-in GPUs in PCIe Gen1 x16 slots.
• Since PCIe 2.0 and 2.1 are identical and compatible in terms of bandwidth, the only reason to get a PCIe 2.1 add-in GPU instead of a PCIe 2.0 add-in GPU is for non-bandwidth related PCIe 3.0 compatibility.
• To reduce cost, some PCIe slots have more lanes physically than electrically. For example, a common PCIe slot is physically x16, but electrically x4, which is known as x16 (x4 mode).
• For maximum graphics performance, get PCIe 3.0 x16 add-in GPUs and a motherboard with PCIe 3.0 x16 or PCIe Gen3 x16 slots designated for add-in GPUs. In other words, make sure the add-in GPUs/slots are PCIe, not PCI, include some reference to version 3, not version 2, version 1, or version omitted, and that the slots are electronically x16, not x1 mode, x2 mode, x4 mode, x8 mode, or x12 mode.
• If installing a single PCIe add-in GPU in a motherboard with multiple PCIe x16 expansion slots, install the PCIe add-in GPU in the PCIe x16 expansion slot designated as the primary/graphics/discrete graphics/dedicated graphics slot.
• For extreme graphics processing, multiple GPU (multi-GPU) configurations have been developed. AMD multi-GPU configurations are known as CrossFireX. NVIDIA multi-GPU configurations are known as SLI. CrossFireX and SLI configurations can be dual GPU, tri GPU, or quad GPU.
• CrossFireX and SLI require proper combinations of qualifying GPUs.
• Motherboard must support the CrossFireX or SLI configuration.
• If installing multiple PCIe add-in GPUs in a motherboard with multiple PCIe x16 expansion slots, install the PCIe add-in GPUs in the PCIe x16 expansion slots designated as the graphics/discrete graphics/dedicated graphics slots.
• PCIe slots provide up to 75W to PCIe cards. Therefore, PCIe add-in GPUs that use less than 75W might have a power supply minimum wattage requirement, and PCIe add-in GPUs that use more than 75W always have a power supply minimum wattage requirement and one or more PCIe power connectors.
• PCIe power connector: The connection between power supply and PCIe add-in GPU to provide additional power to the PCIe add-in GPU.
• PCIe power connector types: 1.) 6 pin PCIe power connector, and 2.) 8 pin PCIe power connector.
• If installing PCIe add-in GPUs, power supply must provided PCIe add-in GPU power supply requirements, if any, including power supply minimum wattage and correct PCIe power connector(s).
• Typical user does not need a PCIe add-in GPU that has a PCIe power connector.
• Some PCIe add-in GPUs are very long and cannot be installed in smaller cases. In addition, although PCIe add-in GPUs install in a single PCIe slot, some PCIe add-in GPUs are very wide (a.k.a., double slot) and can obstruct adjacent motherboard expansion slots and/or have connectors that occupy two adjacent case expansion slots.
• Case must support PCIe add-in GPU length. In addition, adjacent motherboard and case expansions slots must support PCIe add-in GPU width.
• Video cable: The connection between monitor video connector and add-in GPU video connector to transfer the display signal.
• Latest video connector type: DisplayPort. Video connector types oldest to newest: VGA | DVI | HDMI | DisplayPort.
• Video cable must provide correct monitor video connector and correct add-in GPU video connector.

• Non-volatile, long-term data storage for operating system installation, application installation, and data files.
• Latest internal data storage type: solid state drive. Internal data storage types oldest to newest: PATA hard drive (1990s if not earlier) | SATA hard drive (2001) | solid state drive (2007).
• Internal data storage technology types: 1.) electromechanical, which is used by PATA hard drives and SATA hard drives; and 2.) solid state, which is used by solid state drives.
• Internal data storage interface types: 1.) PATA, which is used by PATA hard drives; and 2.) SATA, which is used by SATA hard drives and solid state drives.
• Motherboard must support internal data storage interface.

8.1.  PATA Hard Drive

• A.k.a., parallel AT attachment, parallel ATA, ATA, IDE, EIDE, Ultra DMA, hard drive, hard disk, hard disk drive.
• 3.5" electromechanical internal data storage device with movable read/write heads that retrieve/store data magnetically on spinning platters and is connected to motherboard via PATA interface.
• PATA hard drives replaced by SATA hard drives. PATA hard drives are considered legacy devices. The majority of new motherboards do not support PATA hard drives.
• PATA hard drives and SATA hard drives are not compatible.
• Latest PATA version: PATA/133. PATA versions oldest to newest: PATA/33 (33MB/s) | PATA/66 (66MB/s) | PATA/100 (100MB/s) | PATA/133 (133MB/s).
• PATA/33/66/100/133 are compatible. In other words, for example, PATA/33 hard drives can be installed on PATA/133 channels, and PATA/133 hard drives can be installed on PATA/33 channels. Performance, however, is limited to the performance of the slowest device, be it PATA hard drive or PATA channel.
• PATA hard drive data cable: The connection between PATA hard drive and PATA channel to transfer data.
• PATA hard drive data cable types: 1.) 40 pin 40 wire/conductor data cable, which is compatible with PATA hard drive operation at 33MB/s, not 66/100/133MB/s; and 2.) 40 pin 80 wire/conductor data cable, which is compatible with PATA hard drive operation at 33/66/100/133MB/s, and is required for PATA hard drive operation at 66/100/133MB/s.
• Two PATA hard drives in master/slave configuration can be installed per PATA hard drive data cable/channel.
• PATA hard drive jumper: A mechanism for setting the PATA hard drive position on the PATA data cable/channel. Possible settings: master (MA), slave (SL), and cable select (CS).
• PATA hard drive data cable connector motherboard, master, and slave relative positions: Mobo--------------------SL-----MA.
• Peripheral power connector: The connection between power supply and PATA hard drive to power the PATA hard drive.
• Peripheral power connector type: 4 pin peripheral power connector (a.k.a., 4 pin molex power connector).
• If installing PATA hard drives, power supply must provide peripheral power connectors.
• Access time (in milliseconds) = seek time (function of read/write head movement measured in milliseconds) + latency (function of platter rpm measured in milliseconds).

8.2.  SATA Hard Drive

• A.k.a., serial AT attachment, serial ATA, hard drive, hard disk, hard disk drive.
• 3.5" electromechanical internal data storage device with movable read/write heads that retrieve/store data magnetically on spinning platters and is connected to motherboard via SATA interface.
• SATA ports are provided by SATA host controllers. SATA host controllers can be integrated into motherboard chipsets, added to motherboards by motherboard manufacturers, or installed via SATA host controller expansion cards (a.k.a., SATA host adapters). If Windows does not provide a driver for the SATA host controller, then the user must install the driver manually.
• SATA hard drive manufacturers include Hitachi (hitachi.com), Seagate (seagate.com), which acquired Maxtor in 2005, and Western Digital (wdc.com).
• SATA hard drives replace PATA hard drives.
• SATA hard drives and PATA hard drives are not compatible.
• Latest SATA version: SATA 3.0. SATA versions oldest to newest: SATA 1.5Gb/s (SATA Revision 1.0, SATA150) (2001) | SATA 3.0Gb/s (SATA Revision 2.0, SATA300) (2005) | SATA 6.0Gb/s (SATA Revision 3.0, SATA600) (2009).
• SATA 1.5Gb/s, 3.0Gb/s, and 6.0Gb/s are compatible. In other words, for example, SATA 1.5Gb/s hard drives can be installed on SATA 6.0Gb/s ports, and SATA 6.0Gb/s hard drives can be installed on SATA 1.5Gb/s ports. Performance, however, is limited to the performance of the slowest device, be it SATA hard drive or SATA port.
• SATA hard drive data is transferred using the 8b/10b encoding scheme. As a result, each 10 bits of (raw) data transferred contains 8 bits of (usable) original data. In other words, SATA hard drive data transfer has 20% overhead.
• SATA 1.5Gb/s bandwidth (usable) in Bytes/s is 1.5Gb/s x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) x 1B/8b = 150MB/s.
• SATA 3.0Gb/s bandwidth (usable) in Bytes/s is 3.0Gb/s x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) x 1B/8b = 300MB/s.
• SATA 6.0Gb/s bandwidth (usable) in Bytes/s is 6.0Gb/s x 8b(usable)/10b(raw) x 1B/8b = 600MB/s.
• SATA hard drive jumper: A mechanism for setting the SATA hard drive data transfer rate. Enables newer SATA hard drives to function with older SATA host controllers that do not comply with newer SATA specifications by forcing the SATA hard drive to operate at an older/lower SATA data transfer rate. In theory, SATA 1.5Gb/s, 3.0Gb/s, and 6.0Gb/s compatibility means SATA hard drive jumpering should not be necessary. In practice, however, since not all older SATA host controllers comply with newer SATA specifications, SATA hard drive jumpering is necessary. To ensure SATA hard drive function, jumper the SATA hard drive to its lowest data transfer rate, which is typically the default/factory setting. If the SATA host controller's highest data transfer rate is equal to the SATA hard drive's lowest data transfer rate, then jumpering the SATA hard drive to its lowest data transfer rate does not minimize SATA hard drive performance. If the SATA host controller's highest data transfer rate is equal to or greater than the SATA hard drive's highest data transfer rate, then jumper the SATA hard drive jumper to its highest data transfer rate to maximize SATA hard drive performance. If the SATA hard drive does not function when jumpered to its highest data transfer rate, then the SATA hard drive is likely a newer SATA version than the SATA host controller, and jumper the SATA hard drive to its lowest data transfer rate to enable function.
• SATA hard drive data cable: The connection between SATA hard drive and SATA port to transfer data.
• SATA hard drive data cable types: 1.) SATA Revision 1.0 and 2.0 data cables, which are compatible with SATA hard drive operation at 1.5Gb/s and 3.0Gb/s, not 6.0Gb/s; and 2.) SATA Revision 2.6 and 3.0 data cables, which are compatible with SATA hard drive operation at 1.5Gb/s, 3.0Gb/s, and 6.0Gb/s, and are required for SATA hard drive operation at 6.0Gb/s. SATA Revision 1.0, 2.0, 2.6, and 3.0 data cable connectors are 7 pins, have identical shape, and either end of the cable can be connected to the SATA hard drive or SATA port. SATA Revision 2.6 and 3.0 data cables differ from SATA Revision 1.0 and 2.0 data cables in that SATA Revision 2.6 and 3.0 data cables are of higher quality and are shielded. Use SATA Revision 2.6 and 3.0 data cables, not SATA Revision 1.0 and 2.0 data cables, in a SATA 6.0Gb/s environment. Using SATA Revision 1.0 and 2.0 data cables in a SATA 6.0Gb/s environment can lead to data integrity and performance issues.
• SATA hard drive data cable lengths: Minimum is 300mm (12 inches). Maximum is 1.0 meter (39 inches). The shorter the better, but not shorter than the minimum.
• Only one SATA hard drive can be installed per SATA data cable/port.
• SATA power connector: The connection between power supply and SATA hard drive to power the SATA hard drive.
• SATA power connector type: 15 pin SATA power connector.
• If installing SATA hard drives, power supply must provide SATA power connectors.
• Access time (in milliseconds) = seek time (function of read/write head movement measured in milliseconds) + latency (function of platter rpm measured in milliseconds).

• A.k.a., universal serial bus.
• A receptacle/plug interface and bus interconnect type well suited for connecting peripheral devices to computers.
• A USB is created when a USB device is connected to a USB host. A USB device is a peripheral device with a USB plug. USB plugs can be built into peripheral devices and/or provided by an attachment, such as a USB cable. Common USB device types include keyboards, mice, external data storage devices, printers, network adapters, and digital cameras and camcorders. A USB host is a computer with one or more USB ports. USB ports are provided by USB host controllers. USB host controllers can be integrated into motherboard chipsets, added to motherboards by motherboard manufacturers, or installed via USB host controller expansion cards (a.k.a., USB host adapters). If Windows does not provide a driver for the USB device or USB host controller, then the user must install the driver manually.
• Abbreviations: USB 1.x = USB 1.0 and USB 1.1.
• Latest USB version: USB 3.0. USB versions oldest to newest: USB 1.0 (1996) | USB 1.1 (1998) | USB 2.0 (Hi-Speed USB) (2000) | USB 3.0 (SuperSpeed USB) (2008).
• USB 1.x, 2.0 and 3.0 are compatible. In other words, for example, USB 1.x devices can be installed on USB 3.0 ports, and USB 3.0 devices can be installed on USB 1.x ports. Performance, however, is limited to the performance of the slowest device, be it USB device, USB port, or USB cable.
• USB 1.x defines 4 pin Standard-A connectors as USB ports/plugs and data transfer rates at 1.5Mb/s (Low-Speed USB) and 12Mb/s (Full-Speed USB).
• USB 2.0 defines 4 pin Standard-A connectors as USB ports/plugs and data transfer rates at 1.5Mb/s (Low-Speed USB), 12Mb/s (Full-Speed USB), and 480Mb/s (Hi-Speed USB). In terms of connectors and data transfer rates, USB 2.0 is identical to USB 1.x with the exception of an additional data transfer rate at 480Mb/s (Hi-Speed USB).
• USB 3.0 defines 9 pin Standard-A connectors as USB ports/plugs and data transfer rates at 1.5Mb/s (Low-Speed USB), 12Mb/s (Full-Speed USB), 480Mb/s (Hi-Speed USB), and 5.0Gb/s (SuperSpeed USB). In terms of connectors and data transfer rates, USB 3.0 is identical to USB 2.0 with the exception of 5 additional pins, which are used exclusively for transferring data at 5.0Gb/s (i.e. SuperSpeed USB). In other words, USB 3.0 consists of two distinct buses; 1.) a 4 pin USB 2.0, and 2.) a 5 pin SuperSpeed USB.
• Common USB port types: 1.) USB 2.0 port, which is compatible with USB 1.x, 2.0, and 3.0 plugs and data transfer rates at 1.5Mb/s (Low-Speed USB), 12Mb/s (Full-Speed USB), and 480Mb/s (Hi-Speed USB), not 5.0Gb/s (SuperSpeed USB); and 2.) USB 3.0 port, which is compatible with USB 1.x, 2.0, and 3.0 plugs and data transfer rates at 1.5Mb/s (Low-Speed USB), 12Mb/s (Full-Speed USB), 480Mb/s (Hi-Speed USB), and 5.0Gb/s (SuperSpeed USB).
• For SuperSpeed USB (i.e., USB 3.0 data transfer rates at 5.0Gb/s), get USB 3.0 devices, a motherboard with integrated USB 3.0 host controllers, install USB 3.0 drivers, if necessary, and use USB 3.0 cables, not USB 1.x or 2.0 cables, if necessary.
• Back USB ports: The USB ports located on the back of the computer for connecting USB devices. Back USB ports provided by motherboard back (I/O) panel.
• Motherboard must support back USB.
• Front USB ports: The USB ports located on the front of the computer for connecting USB devices. Front USB provided by connection between motherboard (internal) USB header and case I/O panel.
• Case and motherboard must support front USB.
• USB 3.0 recommends blue USB 3.0 connectors to distinguish them from USB 1.x and 2.0 connectors.

• A.k.a., chassis, enclosure.
• The computer housing and component attachment system.
• Motherboard form factor includes, but is not limited to, motherboard size and motherboard/case mount points.
• Common motherboard form factors: 1.) microATX (μATX), which is 244mm x 244; and 2.) ATX (standard ATX), which is 305mm x 244.
• The difference in microATX and ATX size is primarily due to the number of expansion slots.
• Expansion slot (motherboard definition): The connection between expansion (a.k.a., add-in) card and motherboard to install the add-in card.
• Expansion slot (case definition): The area at the back of the case to access the expansion (a.k.a., add-in) card connectors.
• microATX form factor supports up to 4 expansion slots. ATX form factor supports up to 7 expansion slots. Therefore, microATX compatible case should have at least 4 expansions slots, and ATX compatible case should have at least 7 expansion slots.
• Motherboard/case mount points: The connections between motherboard and case to install the motherboard.
• microATX and ATX form factors have a number of identical motherboard/case mount point positions. Therefore, cases that support ATX motherboards also support microATX motherboards. However, cases that support microATX motherboards might not support ATX motherboards.
• Case must support motherboard form factor.
• Common case types: mini tower, mid tower, and full tower.
• Typical case dimensions and motherboard form factor support: Mini towers are typically 350-425mm x 175-200 x 425-475 (H x W x L). Mini towers typically support microATX motherboards. Larger mini towers might also support ATX motherboards. Mid towers are typically 425-550mm x 175-220 x 450-550 (H x W x L). Mid towers typically support microATX and ATX motherboards. Full towers are typically 550mm+ x 200+ x 550+ (H x W x L). Full towers typically support microATX and ATX motherboards. Case dimension standards, however, do not exist. Therefore, for example, Case X might be one manufacturers mini tower and another manufacturers mid tower. Moreover, for example, Manufacturer A might have some mini towers that support only microATX motherboards, and other mini towers that support both microATX and ATX motherboards.
• It is strongly recommended that you check case specifications for dimensions and motherboard form factor support before purchasing a case.
• Recommended case sizes for microATX and ATX motherboards: microATX motherboard is 244mm x 244. ATX motherboard is 305mm x 244. Typical power supply height is 86mm. Typical CD/DVD burner (not Blu-ray) depth/length is 170mm. Typical PATA/SATA hard drive depth/length is 147mm. Therefore, for microATX motherboards, ~350mm x 425 (H x L) is the absolute minimum case size, 365mm x 450 (H x L) is a practical minimum case size, and 400mm x 475 (H x L) is a preferred minimum case size, the latter being the minimum for users who frequently open the case. And for ATX motherboards, ~410mm x 425 (H x L) is the absolute minimum case size, 425mm x 450 (H x L) is a practical minimum case size, and 450mm x 475 (H x L) is a preferred minimum case size, the latter being the minimum for users who frequently open the case.
• Bays: The place to install: 1.) optical drives, which are typically 5.25" wide; 2.) PATA and SATA hard drives, which are typically 3.5" wide; 3.) solid state drives, which are typically 2.5" wide, and 4.) floppy disk drives, which are typically 2.5" wide.
• Bay types: 1.) external bays, which are accessible from outside the case and, therefore, are commonly used for removable media devices such as optical drives and floppy disk drives; and 2.) internal bays, which are only accessible from inside the case and, therefore, are commonly used for internal data storage devices such as PATA and SATA hard drives and solid state drives.
• Bays misc: Brackets (a.k.a., adapters) convert larger bays to smaller bays. Drives with spinning components are best installed with the spinning components oriented horizontally (flat), not vertically (on edge). Some bays are tool-free, which means the drives, unadulterated, are slid into the bays and secured by a pinch/grasp mechanism. Some bays employ a drive caddy, which means a device is attached to the drives that allows them to be slid into reciprocating bays and secured by a snap-in mechanism. In general, although some designs are better than others, I prefer drive caddies over tool-free.
• Case must support PCIe card/add-in GPU length. In addition, adjacent motherboard and case expansions slots must support PCIe card/add-in GPU width.
• Front USB and audio: The USB ports and audio connectors located on the front of the computer for connecting USB and audio devices. Front USB provided by connection between motherboard (internal) USB header and case I/O panel. Front audio provided by connection between motherboard (internal) audio header and case I/O panel.
• Case and motherboard must support front USB and audio.
• Side panels that swing open and do not detach can be a nuisance when working inside the computer.
• LEDs and switches: The connections between case and motherboard to provide indicator lights and power On/Off and Reset switches.
• Black wires and white wires are negative. All other wire colors are positive. Polarity (i.e., negative/positive) does not matter for switches, including power On/Off and Reset switches.
• Case and power supply design affect computer cooling. Manufacturers of both cases and power supplies should be best positioned and most motivated to develop solutions to computer cooling problems. Therefore, I prefer cases from manufactures of both cases and power supplies.
• Manufacturers of both cases and power supplies include Antec (antec.com), Cooler Master (coolermaster.com), Corsair (corsair.com), Lian Li (lian-li.com), and Thermaltake (thermaltakeusa.com).
• Unless overclocking and/or case interior is unusually segmented, no fancy case cooling system required and one case mounted fan (back, top, or front) is sufficient.
• Case style: The appearance of the case.
• Case style types: 1.) business, which do not have lights, see through side panels, bright colors, and/or odd shapes; and 2.) enthusiast, which have lights, see through side panels, bright colors, and/or odd shapes.
• Case style types by manufacturer from more business to enthusiast oriented: Lian Li | Antec | Corsair | Cooler Master | Thermaltake. Be careful purchasing a case without seeing it plugged in or you might get a Christmas tree.
• Look for case/power supply bundle to reduce cost. Be careful, however, that case/power supply bundles - even from name brand manufacturers - often include small, not large, mini towers, mid towers, and full towers.

10.1.  Typical Case Dimensions And Motherboard Form Factor Support

10.2.  Absolute, Practical, And Preferred Minimum Case Sizes For microATX And ATX Motherboards

10.3.  Inches To Millimeters

• A.k.a., power supply unit (PSU).
• Distributes electricity to computer components.
• Abbreviations: ATX12V v1.x = ATX12V version 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. ATX12V v2.x = ATX12V version 2.0, 2.01, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, and 2.31.
• Latest power supply version: ATX12V v2.31. Power supply versions oldest to newest: ATX12V v1.0 (2000) | ATX12V v1.1 (2000) | ATX12V v1.2 (2002) | ATX12V v1.3 (2003) | ATX12V v2.0 (2003) | ATX12V v2.01 (2004) | ATX12V v2.1 (2005) | ATX12V v2.2 (2005) | ATX12V v2.3 (2007).
• ATX12V v2.x dimensions: 150mm x 140mm x 86mm (W x L x H).
• For current microATX and ATX form factor motherboards, get power supply that is ATX12V v2.2 compliant or above and provides all required connectors.
• Power supply must support motherboard form factor.
• Do not modify connectors. Do not use mismatched connectors. Do not use adapters. Instead, get a power supply that provides all required connectors.
• To determine power supply wattage requirement, use power supply calculator and then add 100W.
  i

  For power supply calculators, see Additional Reading (below).
• Top/bottom fan and installation orientation: Higher quality power supplies include a top or bottom fan in addition to the rear fan. If power supply includes a top or bottom fan, then install power supply right-side-up or up-side-down as necessary so that top or bottom fan airflow is not impeded.
• Main power connector: The primary connection between power supply and motherboard to power the computer.
• Latest main power connector type: 24 pin main power connector. Main power connector types oldest to newest: 20 pin main power connector (2000) | 24 pin main power connector (2003). ATX12V v1.x describes a 20 pin (2 rows x 10 pin each) main power connector. To support the PCIe 75W power requirement, ATX12V v2.x describes a 24 pin (2 rows x 12 pin each) main power connector. Except for the 4 additional pins, the 20 pin and 24 pin main power connectors are identical. Therefore, for compatibility with old and new motherboards, many power supplies provide a 20+4 pin main power connector.
• Power supply must provide correct main power connector.
• CPU power connector: The connection between power supply and motherboard to power the processor.
• CPU power connector types: 1.) 4 pin (2 rows x 2 pins each) ATX 12V CPU power connector, and 2.) 8 pin (2 rows x 4 pins each) EPS 12V CPU power connector (a.k.a., 8 pin ATX 12V CPU power connector). Two 4 pin ATX 12V CPU power connectors equal one 8 pin EPS 12V CPU power connector. Therefore, for compatibility with both types of CPU power connectors, many power supplies provide 4+4 pin ATX/EPS 12V CPU connectors (a.k.a., 4+4 pin ATX 12V CPU connectors).
• Power supply must provide correct CPU power connector(s).
• PCIe slots provide up to 75W to PCIe cards. Therefore, PCIe cards/add-in GPUs that use less than 75W might have a power supply minimum wattage requirement, and PCIe cards/add-in GPUs that use more than 75W always have a power supply minimum wattage requirement and one or more PCIe power connectors.
• PCIe power connector: The connection between power supply and PCIe card/add-in GPU to provide additional power to the PCIe card/add-in GPU.
• PCIe power connector types: 1.) 6 pin (2 rows x 3 pins each) PCIe power connector, which provides up to 75W; and 2.) 8 pin (2 rows x 4 pins each) PCIe power connector, which provides up to 150W. Except for the 2 additional pins, the 6 pin and 8 pin PCIe power connectors are identical. Therefore, for compatibility with both types of PCIe power connectors, many power supplies provide 6+2 pin PCIe power connectors.
• If installing PCIe cards/add-in GPUs, power supply must provided PCIe card/add-in GPU power supply requirements, if any, including power supply minimum wattage and correct PCIe power connector(s).
• Peripheral power connector: The connection between power supply and PATA hard drive to power the PATA hard drive.
• Peripheral power connector type: 4 pin peripheral power connector (a.k.a., 4 pin molex power connector).
• If installing PATA hard drives, power supply must provide peripheral power connectors.
• SATA power connector: The connection between power supply and SATA hard drive to power the SATA hard drive.
• SATA power connector type: 15 pin SATA power connector.
• If installing SATA hard drives, power supply must provide SATA power connectors.
• Floppy disk drive power connector: The connection between power supply and floppy disk drive to power the floppy disk drive.
• Floppy disk drive power connector type: 4 pin floppy disk drive power connector.
• If installing floppy disk drives, power supply must provide floppy disk drive power connectors.
• Case and power supply design affect computer cooling. Manufacturers of both cases and power supplies should be best positioned and most motivated to develop solutions to computer cooling problems. Therefore, I prefer power supplies from manufactures of both cases and power supplies.
• Manufacturers of both cases and power supplies include Antec (antec.com), Cooler Master (coolermaster.com), Corsair (corsair.com), Lian Li (lian-li.com), and Thermaltake (thermaltakeusa.com).
• Look for case/power supply bundle to reduce cost. Be careful, however, that case/power supply bundles - even from name brand manufacturers - often include low quality generic brand (a.k.a., stock) ATX12V v2.0 power supplies, not high quality name brand ATX12V v2.2 power supplies or above.

• AMD Technologies (amd.com)
• AMD Support Search (support.amd.com) (Useful for finding Design Specification and Product Data Sheet technical documents.)
• AMD Chipsets (amd.com)
• AMD Chipsets For Desktop PCs (amd.com)
• AMD 8-Series Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 870 Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 880G Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 890GX Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 890FX Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 9-Series Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 970 Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 990X Chipset (amd.com)
• AMD 990FX Chipset (amd.com)
• Socket AM3 Design Specification (.pdf) (support.amd.com)
• Socket FM1 Design Specification (.pdf) (support.amd.com)
• ARK (ark.intel.com)
• Intel Desktop Compatibility Tool (processormatch.intel.com) (Select a processor to find compatible boards. Select a board to find compatible processors.)
• Built-In Visuals For Graphics As Real As Life (intel.com)
• HD Graphics Quick Reference Guide (software.intel.com)
• Create The Ultimate Visual Experience With Intel Iris Graphics (intel.com)
• Quick Reference Guide To 2nd Generation Intel Core Processor Graphics (HD Graphics) (software.intel.com)
• Intel Core i3 Desktop Processors That Contain Intel HD Graphics (intel.com)
• Intel Core i5 Desktop Processors That Contain Intel HD Graphics (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7 Desktop Processors That Contain Intel HD Graphics (intel.com)
• Intel Desktop Chipsets (ark.intel.com)
• Intel 5 Series Chipset And Intel 3400 Series Chipset: Datasheet (intel.com)
• Intel Q57 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel H55 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel H57 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel 6 Series Chipset And Intel C200 Series Chipset: Datasheet (intel.com)
• Intel B65 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Q65 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Q67 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel H61 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel H67 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Z68 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel P67 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel 7 Series / C216 Chipset Family Platform Controller Hub (PCH): Datasheet (intel.com)
• Intel B75 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Q75 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Q77 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel H77 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Z75 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Z77 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel 8 Series / C220 Series Chipset Family Platform Controller Hub (PCH): Datasheet (intel.com)
• Intel B85 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Q85 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Q87 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel H87 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Z87 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel 9 Series Chipset Family Platform Controller Hub (PCH): Datasheet (intel.com)
• Intel H97 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Z97 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel 100 Series Chipset Family Platform Controller Hub (PCH): Datasheet - Volume 1 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Intel 100 Series Chipset Family Platform Controller Hub (PCH): Datasheet - Volume 2 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Intel B150 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Q150 And Q170 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel H170 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel Z170 Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel X58 Express Chipset: Datasheet (intel.com)
• Intel X58 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel X79 Express Chipset: Datasheet (intel.com)
• Intel X79 Express Chipset (intel.com)
• Intel C610 Series Chipset And Intel X99 Chipset Platform Controller Hub (PCH): Datasheet (intel.com)
• microATX Motherboard Interface Specification: Version 1.2 (.pdf) (formfactors.org) (Intel.)
• ATX Specification: Version 2.1 (.pdf) (formfactors.org) (Intel.)
• ATX Specification: Version 2.2 (.pdf) (formfactors.org) (Intel.)
• Desktop Boards: Integration Guide: Component Selection (intel.com)
• AMD Processors (amd.com)
• AMD Processors For Desktop PCs (amd.com)
• Desktop Processor Solutions (products.amd.com) (Includes Refine Your Results dropdowns.)
• AMD Sempron Processor (amd.com)
• AMD Phenom II Processors (amd.com)
• Family 10h AMD Phenom II Processor Product Data Sheet (.pdf) (support.amd.com)
• AMD Athlon II Processors (amd.com)
• Family 10h AMD Athlon II Processor Product Data Sheet (.pdf) (support.amd.com)
• AMD FX Processors (amd.com)
• Family 15h Models 00h-0Fh AMD FX-Series Processor Product Data Sheet (.pdf) (support.amd.com)
• AMD A-Series Processor (amd.com)
• Family 12h AMD A-Series Accelerated Processor Product Data Sheet (.pdf) (support.amd.com)
• About Intel Processor Numbers (intel.com)
• Intel Celeron Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Intel Pentium Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Intel Core Processors Technical Resources (intel.com)
• Intel Core i5-600, i3-500 Desktop Processor Series, Intel Pentium Desktop Processor 6000 Series: Datasheet – Volume 1 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i5-600, i3-500 Desktop Processor Series And Intel Pentium Desktop Processor 6000 Series: Datasheet – Volume 2 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7-800 And i5-700 Desktop Processor Series: Datasheet – Volume 1 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7-800 And i5-700 Desktop Processor Series: Datasheet – Volume 2 (intel.com)
• Previous Generation Intel Core i3 Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Previous Generation Intel Core i5 Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Previous Generation Intel Core i7 Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 2nd Generation Intel Core Processor Family Desktop, Intel Pentium Processor Family Desktop, And Intel Celeron Processor Family Desktop: Datasheet, Volume 1 (intel.com)
• 2nd Generation Intel Core Processor Family Desktop, Intel Pentium Processor Family Desktop, And Intel Celeron Processor Family Desktop: Datasheet, Volume 2 (intel.com)
• 2nd Generation Intel Core i3 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 2nd Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 2nd Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Desktop 3rd Generation Intel Core Processor Family, Desktop Intel Pentium Processor Family, And Desktop Intel Celeron Processor Family: Datasheet – Volume 1 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Desktop 3rd Generation Intel Core Processor Family, Desktop Intel Pentium Processor Family, And Desktop Intel Celeron Processor Family: Datasheet – Volume 2 Of 2 (intel.com)
• 3rd Generation Intel Core i3 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 3rd Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 3rd Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Desktop 4th Generation Intel Core Processor Family, Desktop Intel Pentium Processor Family, And Desktop Intel Celeron Processor Family: Datasheet - Volume 1 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Desktop 4th Generation Intel Core Processor Family, Desktop Intel Pentium Processor Family, And Desktop Intel Celeron Processor Family: Datasheet - Volume 2 Of 2 (intel.com)
• 4th Generation Intel Core i3 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 4th Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 4th Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Desktop 5th Generation Intel Core Processor Family: Datasheet – Volume 1 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Desktop 5th Generation Intel Core Processor Family: Datasheet – Volume 2 Of 2 (intel.com)
• 5th Generation Intel Core i5 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• 5th Generation Intel Core i7 Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Extreme Edition Series And Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Series: Datasheet, Volume 1 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Extreme Edition Series And Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Series: Datasheet, Volume 2 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Extreme Edition Series And Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Series On 32-nm Process: Datasheet, Volume 1 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Extreme Edition Series And Intel Core i7-900 Desktop Processor Series On 32-nm Process: Datasheet, Volume 2 (intel.com)
• Previous Generation Intel Core i7 Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Previous Generation Intel Core i7 Extreme Processor (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• Intel Core i7 Processor Family For The LGA-2011 Socket: Datasheet, Volume 1 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7 Processor Family For The LGA-2011 Socket: Datasheet, Volume 2 (intel.com)
• Sandy Bridge E & X79 PCIe 3.0: It Works (anandtech.com)
• Geforce 600 Series Gen3 Support On X79 Platform (nvidia.custhelp.com)
• Intel Core i7 Processor Family For LGA2011 Socket: Datasheet – Volume 1 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7 Processor Family For LGA2011 Socket: Datasheet – Volume 2 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7 Processor Family For LGA2011-v3 Socket: Datasheet – Volume 1 Of 2 (intel.com)
• Intel Core i7 Processor Family For LGA2011-v3 Socket: Datasheet – Volume 2 Of 2(intel.com)
• Intel High End Desktop Processors (Desktop) (ark.intel.com)
• JEDEC (jedec.org)
• Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM Standard: JESD79F: Feb 2008 (jedec.org) (Free download with registration.)
• DDR2 SDRAM Standard: JESD79-2F: Nov 2009 (jedec.org) (Free download with registration.)
• DDR3 SDRAM Standard: JESD79-3F: Jul 2012 (jedec.org) (Free download with registration.)
• Addendum No. 1 To JESD79-3 - 1.35 V DDR3L-800, DDR3L-1066, DDR3L-1333, DDR3L-1600, And DDR3L-1866: JESD79-3-1A.01: May 2013 (jedec.org) (Free download with registration.)
• Addendum No. 2 to JESD79-3 - For 1.25 V DDR3U-800, DDR3U-1066, DDR3U-1333, And DDR3U-1600: JESD79-3-2: Oct 2011 (jedec.org) (Free download with registration.)
• DDR4 SDRAM Standard: JESD79-4A: Nov 2013 (jedec.org) (Free download with registration.)
• Memory Technology Evolution: An Overview Of System Memory Technologies: Technology Brief, 9th Edition (.pdf) (h10032.www1.hp.com)
• 1.35v - 1.5v Dual-Voltage DDR3 Memory (crucial.com)
• DDR4 Infographic (.pdf) (crucial.com) (Information on DDR/DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM including release dates.)
• PCI Special Interest Group (PCI-SIG) (pcisig.com)
• Press Release: PCI-SIG Board Of Directors Approve PCI Express Specifications For High-Performance Serial I/O (pcisig.com)
• Press Release: PCI-SIG Delivers PCI Express 2.0 Specification (pcisig.com)
• Press Release: PCI-SIG Releases PCI Express 3.0 Specification (pcisig.com)
• PCI Family History (.pdf) (pcisig.com)
• White Paper: Creating A PCI Express Interconnect (.pdf) (pcisig.com)
• Benefits Of PCI Express Architecture For Components and Systems (intel.com)
• PCI Express (PCIe) 3.0 Accelerator Features (intel.com)
• PCI Express - An Overview of the PCI Express Standard (zone.ni.com)
• PCI Express 2.0: Scalable Interconnect Technology, TNG (anandtech.com)
• Serial ATA International Organization (SATA-IO) (sata-io.org)
• SATA Naming Guidelines (sata-io.org)
• Frequently Asked Questions About SATA 6Gb/s And The SATA Revision 3.0 Specification (May/June 2009) (.pdf) (sata-io.org)
• Fast Just Got Faster: SATA 6Gb/s: May 27, 2009 (.pdf) (sata-io.org)
• The Path From 3Gb/s To SATA 6Gb/s: How To Migrate Current Designs To The SATA Revision 3.0 Specification: May 27, 2009 (.pdf) (sata-io.org)
• SATA II Hard Drives And Compatibility With SATA I Controllers (wdc.custhelp.com)
• Problems Encountered Installing SATA 3.0 Gb/s Hard Drives On SATA 1.5 Gb/s Controllers (wdc.custhelp.com)
• Serial ATA (SATA) Data Cable Lengths (seagate.custkb.com)
• usb.org
• Universal Serial Bus Revision 2.0 Specification (.zip) (usb.org)
• Universal Serial Bus Revision 3.0 Specification (.zip) (usb.org)
• A Technical Introduction To USB 2.0 (.pdf) (usb.org)
• USB Info: Frequently Asked Questions (usb.org)
• Intel Universal Serial Bus (USB) Specifications (intel.com)
• USB FAQ: Introductory Level (msdn.microsoft.com)
• ATX12V: Power Supply Design Guide: Version 2.01 (.pdf) (formfactors.org) (Intel.)
• ATX12V: Power Supply Design Guide: Version 2.2: March 2005 (.pdf) (formfactors.org) (Intel.)
• Power Supply: Design Guide For Desktop Platform Form Factors: Revision 1.1: March 2007 (.pdf) (formfactors.org) (Intel.) (Includes ATX12V Specific Guidelines 2.3.)
• All About The Various PC Power Supply Cables And Connectors (playtool.com)
• PSU Selector Tool (www-ssl.intel.com) (Support for the 4th Generation Intel Core Processors (Desktop) code named Haswell C6/C7 low power sleep states is listed in the 12V2 Min-load 0A column.)
• Haswell Compatibility With Corsair Power Supplies (corsair.com)
• Thermaltake Power Supplies Units Are Ready For Intel Haswell CPUs (thermaltake.com)
• eXtreme Power Supply Calculator Lite (extreme.outervision.com)
• Thermaltake Power Supply Calculator (thermaltake.outervision.com) (Powered by eXtreme Power Supply Calculator.)
• Power Supply Calculator (educations.newegg.com) (Thanks Anon.)
• Recommended Power Supply Wattage Calculator (support.asus.com) (Thanks SideField.)